Rhetorical Essay: Shame is Worth a Try Essay

Dan M. Kahan’s â€Å"Shame is Worth a Try† was first published in the Boston Globe on August 5, 2001. In this essay, Kahan contends that the use of â€Å"shame† as a penalty of low level crimes is not only effective, but is an economical and humane alternative to imprisonment. It’s difficult to ascertain who Kahan’s intended audience is. However, because he uses examples of shame being used as an alternative sanction around the country; â€Å"Drive drunk in Florida or Texas, and you might be required to place a conspicuous â€Å"DUI† bumper sticker on your car† (Kahan 574) I would venture to say that the public at large is whom he is possibly targeting. This is further reinforced by the fact that the author chose to at least â€Å"initially† publish the article in the Boston Globe, a local Massachusetts newspaper. Kahan competently uses contrast and comparison throughout his essay to illuminate a subject that otherwise might be ignored. Nevertheless he ultimately falls short of being convincing, mainly, due to his lack of usage, of relevant facts and figures. Kahan opens his essay with the basic question â€Å"is shame an appropriate criminal punishment?† (574). He then explores examples of its use in various jurisdictions. â€Å"Refuse to make your child-support payments in Virginia, and you will find that your vehicle has been immobilized with an appropriate colored boot†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Kahan 575). Immediately after grabbing the readers attention with examples, Kahan presents a contrasting viewpoint. â€Å"Many experts, however, are skeptical of these new shaming punishments. Some question their effectiveness as a deterrent†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Kahan 575). This further elicits the readers curiosity, bringing them to the heart of the issue. The author eloquently asks the question, â€Å"Who is right?† (575). He then goes on to use a logos style exploration, of both sides of the issue. Kahan’s main claim is that proponents don’t get that shame, can be as effective as prison, at a lower overall cost to society. Kahan further argues and finishes strongly with the statement that the overall question shouldn’t be â€Å"isà ¢â‚¬  shame a proper punishment, but how do we employ it’s use properly? The author does an admirable job of grabbing the readers attention right from the start by giving interesting, and relevant examples of how shame has been employed around the country. ie: DUI’s in Texas, child-support in Virginia. Moreover, his use of logos styled arguments throughout the article does an excellent job of articulating his viewpoint while keeping the reader engaged. Kahan gains the readers respect by presenting well reasoned and intelligent viewpoints in such a way that it’s actually hard to find any particular fault with his assertions. The authors choice to present an opposing view right from the start, although not as effective as it could have been, was an apropos way to strengthen his stance. In moving forward, Kahan counterbalances some opponents by making it perfectly clear that his stance for shame based penalties applies to minor infractions of the law only . â€Å"There’s obviously no alternative to imprisonment for murderers, rapists, and other violent criminals†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Kahan 575). By using examples of these shame based penalties from around the country, the author also makes it appear to the reader that he is knowledgeable in matters concerning our justice syste m. His strongest point though comes at the end of his article when he simply asks the question â€Å"Why not at least give it a try?† (Kahan 576). This seems to beg an additional question, since our current system is overloaded why not try a different approach? Kahans major downfall in this article is his insufficient use of relevant facts and figures. Although the author does reference one particular study by Harold Grasmick that shows â€Å"public disgrace exerts greater pressure to comply with the law than the threat of imprisonment and other formal punishments.† (Kahan 576). Overall it lacks the kind of â€Å"hard figures† it would take statistically to reinforce his claim. If the author had chosen to include some statistics on say, the effectiveness of alternative sanctions, or showed a cost analysis on prison sentences. He would have established a sense of trustworthiness with his reader. Unfortunately, due to the lack of those types of â€Å"hard figures† his essay lacks credibility. That lack of credibility, leaves the reader to wonder, just how knowledgeable is this author with this subject? If Kah an had just chosen to tell us a little about himself and his background, he could have very well hit a home run in the credibility department. He does after all have an exceptionally distinguished law career. Unfortunately, he fails to do so, thus leaving the reader with too many unanswered questions. The last major complaint of this essay is a complete lack of pathos style writing. Overcrowding, as well as, the shear number of offenders in our criminal justice system alone is staggering. This  hot button topic could have easily been used to stir up some emotion and passion in his argument. In this way, the author would have essentially legitimized his stance, as well as, inspired his readers to take action. For whatever reason though, the author chose to ignore this completely, and as such completely fails in winning over his audience. In the writing of this essay, Kahan addresses an important topic of our times. Our current criminal justice system is overloaded and wrought with problems, and addressing how to punish petty crimes is certainly relevant. Yet his article, despite illuminating this controversial and important subject, fails in delivering the facts needed to inspire any sort of change. Kahan does an admirable job of creating interest in a topic many might otherwise ignore. However, he ultimately falls flat in the execution and leaves the reader floundering, rather than informed. As a last note, Khans writing style might not always include the use of pathos. Unfortunately for him his lack of appeal to emotion in this particular essay will render it ultimately â€Å"forgettable†. Works Cited Kahan, Dan M. â€Å"Shame is Worth a Try† Models for Writers. Ed. Rosa Eschholz. Boston * New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, January 2012. 574-578 Print

Approach in Teaching Standard English to Native Speakers

English is used by many people all around the world. Different people use it for different purposes in different settings. The English in the modern times is not considered as a unified and single language because of many factors, one of which is the diverse society that has contributed to the development of the English language. Linguist had developed a number of specialized terms to label the different ways people nowadays use English. The first one is due to the regional variations of the people. People in different regions like the US, Canada, London, Ireland, Australia, India or Asia have different ways in using the English language. These regional variations in different areas differ very much in speaking the English language either on its pronunciation, vocabulary or grammar. (Byrd, 1999)The second is the existing sub-regions within this area. The US has many sub-regions existing; also in England there are considerably many groupings to be considered. The third factor is that all English are different, but all of them are considered and share the common core, the English language. The fourth factor entails that in addition to the regional variations of English, English has sub-groups of speakers which are alike either in education or social status.(Byrd, 1999) There are features of pronunciation and grammar that are used to link people together belonging to a social group and as part of their social identity as members of the group.The fifth factors entails that English can be categorized into subsets belonging to a certain type of communication, say the English language used by engineers, mathematicians, or a group of college students.   The sixth factor attributes the variation on how English is written or spoken. This particular factor is quite complex but the general idea is that there are differences attributed from example, a written research paper compare to a research presentation done in public. This area of topic is essential for English teac hers of ESL/EFL for them to be able to sort which type of English to teach, and how they can effectively teach the type of English to use in a communication setting appropriate with the situation and conditions. Finally, linguist often times discuss the varieties of English based on â€Å"style†. Style is often divided into loose sub-groups which label things such as â€Å"formal†, â€Å"neutral†, and â€Å"informal†. (Byrd, 1999)STANDARD AND NON-STANDARD ENGLISHIn the discussion of Standard English, the topic that greatly affects this discussion concerns with the use of terms and differentiation between standard and non-standard English. Both of these terms must be defined clearly before discussing the right approach in teaching Standard English to native English speaking students. Biber et al. (1988) suggest that â€Å"vernacular† should be used to define the Standard English rather than the tern â€Å"non-standard† because it somehow impl ies a negative connotation to it.For professional teachers of English, they should be very careful with labeling and defining the sub-categories on English. English teachers are faced with issues such as first, with regards to the term â€Å"standard† which is a label in accordance with the people who are dominating a population and are likely to label the term to something that implies to having a prescription to use something that is labeled as â€Å"standard†.The term standard does not imply it being a â€Å"better† or â€Å"best† form of English, it just is a term governed by the rational process of standardization. Second, terms which describe the variety of English with â€Å"un-† or in this case, â€Å"uneducated† should be eliminated because of the negative connotations it brings. Third, there exists the realization that a system is present in contrasting between standard and no-standard. This system gives little help in specifying t he many sub groups of English speaking people based on the vocabulary, grammar or pronunciation. Fourth, it must be understood that any individual must speak more than one version of English because in a diverse society, the skill is needed and can be used appropriately in everyday communication settings.APPROACH IN TEACHING STANDARD ENGLISHIn today’s academic curriculum, specifically in grammar, the debate is not really about grammar, but rather language. Standard American English should be taught to students for them to grasp the essential style in communicating the English language. Katz and Stevens (1997) proposes that there should be a curriculum which is based on the model of foreign-language immersion programs that aims to teach students with Standard English to teach them the value and understanding of English whether it may be in writing, speaking, reading or understanding.The authors attributed their proposal based on the observation that the traditional curricula i n most schools through the traditional method has not been effective in reaching the student’s reading, writing, speaking, listening and grammar skills. Hatwell (1985) study suggests that even with the study on formal grammar rules; the knowledge acquired by students is not translated into practice. Also explained by Brosnahan and Neuieb (1995) mentions that one of the primary reasons why students are unable to transfer their knowledge into action is because teachers are not teaching the right method.The authors suggest that the best way is to create an environment in which students are comfortable in studying the complexities of grammar. After their study, Brosnahan and Neulied conclude that teachers are likely to effectively teach the medium if they themselves like the topic and this in turn motivates their students to learn. This is called the enthusiastic instruction approach in grammar. Unfortunately, the study does not reflect the improvement on the student’s gen eral facility with Standard English.According to Weaver (1979), the isolated grammar instruction could even hinder the language development, this situation because of the idea that the situation entails student’s isolation among their peers. Rather than practicing the formal ideas in the isolation instruction program, students are deprived of the time to either read, write and converse among their peers which could significantly help them in understanding Standard English.Krashen (1985) concluded in his study that the most efficient way to acquire a second language is through immersion. Standard English, in other areas in of the world are considered as their second language because basically, they do not use the language in everyday settings and situations. The immersion approach will allow students to learn Standard English in a situation and environment where they can interact with their peers, and use the language in the direct communication process of the program.Only aft er which student learns the faculty of the second language do they learn about the language itself, and this in the end will refine their usage and style. Immersion program will succeed as a method for teaching Standard English to native English speakers because it initiates the process by which children acquires their first language. This is accredited to the fact that children learn language holistically, first, through the immersion at home, and this leads to their understanding and communication ideas about their surroundings and with other people.Through immersion, children are stimulated continuously through their first language. To affectively teach this approach, it should encompass areas in speaking, writing, listening, and reading activities. Also, different activities should constantly be referring to this method for it to be effectively to be proven in a normal classroom setting. The school administrators should also take their role in being committed with this kind of a pproach; they should be the one to facilitate a cross-curricular immersion environment that explicitly uses the Standard English to emphasize its subjects.Teachers of the immersion curriculum should also work in teams to allow the continuum process of learning for both students and teachers. This will entail a positive direction that will keep students motivated and will provide an environment where cooperation is included in every class. It must be noted though that the Immersion approach will not benefit all students, only those students in an environment where Standard American English is used poses as the best environment to which the approach can be adapted.CONCLUSIONThe traditional instruction of English is seen as ineffective and the need for a language curriculum that adapts to the developing needs of the students to become linguistically competitive is realized. Current grammar instruction and traditional methods had failed to deliver the appropriate language and communicat ing skills to the students. This is the problem that the Immersion program wishes to solve. Standard English, considered as a second language, enables students to effectively communicate with other people that comprise the diverse society we live in today. This will help them become competent and confident later on in their lives. Discreet lessons concerning prescriptive grammar is not evidently shown in the student’s language composition or their oral communicating skill, thus, the Immersion program aims to bring literacy, composition and communication together for students to master the essential concepts of Standard American English.References:BIBER, D., ET AL. (1988) Variation Across Speech and Writing, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.BROSNAHAN, I. A. N., J. (1995) Teaching Grammar Affectively: Learning to Like Grammar   Porthsmouth, N.Y, Boyton/Cook.BYRD, P. (1999) Standard & Non-Standard English :The Dangers of Ill-defined Concepts.HARTWELL, P. (1985) Grammar, G rammars, and the Teaching of Grammar. College English, 47, 105-127.KRASHEN, S. (1985) Inquiries and Insights: Second Language Teaching, immersion, and Bilingual Education, Hayward, CA, Almany Press.STEVENS, K. A. (1997) Standard English Immersion for Native Speakers  Ã‚   PIPA.WEAVER, C. (1979) Grammar for Teachers, Urbana, IL, NCTE.

Ventria Bioscience and the Controversy over Plant-Made Medicines

Case Study: â€Å"Ventria Bioscience and the Controversy over Plant – Made Medicines† GB590 Corporate Social Responsibility Prof. Timothy Loney By Willette Marchany Rivera February 22, 2011 Introduction: Case overview Ventria Bioscience, a biotechnology firm based in California, faces the challenge of commercializing a product with potential and considerable public health benefits. Ventria had developed a ground-breaking technology using genetically modified (GM) rice to grow the proteins lactoferrin and lysozyme, both found in human breast milk, which can be used for the treatment of diarrhea in children, tourists and the military. Lawrence and Weber, 2010, p. 494) However, the pioneer biotechnology invention has to go through regulatory processes and stakeholder’s scrutiny, before it can enter the market. There are ethical concerns over the plant-based medicines and opposition coming from consumer advocates, environmentalists, rice farmers and food safety activ ists. Ventria needs to overcome the regulatory environment and manage its stakeholder relations in order to succeed and release this product for sale. In order to do so they must establish a strategic plan to improve their triple bottom line performance.They need to convince stakeholders that the potential benefits are desirable and that they can safely and responsibly deliver the product to be commercialized. Even then, Ventria and the biotechnology industry might always face opposition from groups against genetically modified organisms in which human genes are also manipulated. â€Å"The public’s reactions to plant- made pharmaceuticals were likely to be extreme, given the high benefits, potential risks, and deep moral quandaries posed by these new technologies. † (Lawrence & Weber, 2010, p. 92) Financial goal Ventria’s financial goal is to make profit from producing in a big scale the GM rice they developed and selling it at an affordable price. The plant-mad e pharmaceutical concept was created in order to take advantage of the capability of harvesting the proteins in a natural host instead of using a costly laboratory environment where manufacturing would be slower and in a smaller scale. Ventria’s financial goal seems to be intertwined to the capability of producing the GM rice outdoors over a large amount of land.Environmentalists and rice farmers are highly concerned with the possibility of comingling happening and the adverse impact on the ecosystem this could have. Other than that, the Union of Concerned Scientists, a policy advocacy group, warned that it is unwise to produce drugs in plants outdoors, because there would be little control over the doses people might get exposed to, and some might be allergic to the proteins. (Grace, 2011, para. 24-25) Environmentalists are concerned too about Ventria using acres of arable land to harvest medicine instead. (Grace, 2011, para. 0) Social goal Ventria’s social goal shoul d be to contribute to the treatment of diarrhea in children, the military and tourists at an affordable price with their innovative plant-made pharmaceutical without damaging society. In order to do so, they shall get the local and global public to trust the biotechnology industry and plant-made pharmaceuticals. They also need to assure that the product or its production will not harm or negatively affect human lives. The GM rice cannot get mixed with or contact in any way crops designated for human food supply.At the same time, consumers need to be informed honestly about the content of the products and that they are GM. Otherwise, customers would be deceived. There are ethical concerns about the use of human genes in this GM rice and consumer rights to be informed should be placed first. Food safety is also an issue as this GM rice remains to be widely tested in humans and be approved by the FDA. The company also needs to become liable in case the GM rice contaminates other rice f armers’ crops and contaminated products are sent to the human food supply.Environmental goal Ventria’s environmental goal would be to produce the GM rice without contaminating the environment or throwing off the natural balance, that is, without disturbing the ecosystem. They cannot allow comingling to happen. Also, they need to avoid and control the risks of any adverse impact of the GM rice to the ecosystem by taking measures to avoid potential harms to the wildlife and the spreading of the GM rice crops that could lead to undesirable hybrids.Summary: Triple bottom line performance and strategic recommendations After considering all the financial, social and environmental factors that adversely affect their performance, Ventria is in position of making a strategic decision. They should consider first to modify or radically change their production strategy and second to enter in a marketing process focused in educating the public about their product. These strategies can help them achieve their three bottom-line goals. They need to provide a safer way of producing their product and obtain the permits and the approval to sell it.Their financial, social and environmental goals can only be attained by focusing in resolving the issues with their stakeholders. There are two recommendations on how to change their current production strategy. They can search for an isolated area of arable land away from other rice farmers and set stringent measures of control to avoid the risk of contaminating other crops. However, controlling all the risk factors in an open crop field would be complicated and it is uncertain to which degree it could be accomplished.Another option would be to consider production in greenhouses. This would be probably more costly, but will ensure a higher degree of control. Finally, Ventria would have to ensure the safety of their product and take on an honest advertising campaign to disseminate doubts and concerns about their invention . Likely, there will be opposition based on the ethical concerns about GM. However, public campaigns that provide straight forward and clear information from the developers will give customers more tools to make an informed decision about the product.References Grace. (2011, February 2). Genetically modified rice now on its way to fields in several  countries. Nwoandsecretsocieties. WordPress. com. Retrieved February 24, 2011 from http://nwoandsecretsocieties. wordpress. com/2011/02/02/genetically-modified-rice-now-on-its-way-to-fields-in-several-countries/ Lawrence, A. T. (2010). Ventria Bioscience and the Controversy over Plant- Made Medicines. In Lawrence, A. T. , Weber J. , Business and Society: Stakeholders, Ethics,

Heroes Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Heroes - Term Paper Example Let us discuss two main features that help heroes bring a successful change in social, political, or organizational conditions. All heroes have a clear vision. They are involved in bringing changes (Rock, 2007). They can predict future scenarios and conditions that can affect them, as well as their followers. Based on that prediction, they shape their strategies accordingly by bringing suitable changes to their strategic approach and way of doing things. They analyze things, create a vision, and communicate that vision to their followers to inject awareness in their followers regarding the need of change. Heroes usually set large-scale goals based on the benefits of their followers (Tollefson, 1993). They think from a broad perspective and set long-term milestones to achieve. They explore novel techniques to analyze and model their strategies regarding accomplishment of goals. Their level of confidence in very high as compared to other people because of which they are able to take control of different matters of life instead of letting life take control of them. Another common trait of all heroes is their willingness to sacrifice. Heroes do not hesitate from sacrificing their own wishes and desires for the benefits of others. They are willing to help others while putting their own needs at risk (Tollefson, 1993). Let us discuss how heroes put their money, life, and time at risk for their cause or for pleasure of others. Heroes are more emotional as compared to others. They are concerned about the fulfillment of their goals and missions, and for this, their put their beloved things at risk including money (Tollefson, 1993). When they want to achieve something, they do not care about the amount of money they need for that purpose. They just go for it at any cost. For example, Abdul Karim who was a national hero of Bangladesh sold his own house to arrange money for launching campaign against corruption. Heroes are very concerned about doing things

Management Strategic Plan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Management Strategic Plan - Research Paper Example Sharjah municipality works on betterment for all the people of Emirates (Sharjah Municipality, 2012). Strengths, Weaknesses, Threats & Opportunities Strengths The corporation has strong local presence. The municipality has developed expertise in the field of e-service. The corporation has strong presence in the society. They practice corporate social responsibility activity to enhance social image. They are a government organization and they can take help from the government to raise capital for implementing new technology. The administrative department is using a updated website to provide information to customers. The municipality is using e-payment system for value services. Weaknesses Work culture of the municipality needs modification. All the staffs work alone. Work culture of the municipality affects customer service level. Customers are not satisfied with the service level of the Sharjah Municipality. The municipality needs to implement state of art technology to improve cust omer service level. The administrative department does not use state of art technology like VoIP and data collocation technique to increase service efficiency. Opportunities Sharjah Municipality has the opportunity to increase service efficiency by using internet application like email marketing can help the company to design suitable communication strategy. The corporation can get real time feedback and queries from customer after implementing e-service. The corporation has the opportunity to improve service level by implementing E-procurement system. The municipality can increase efficiency of digital marketing by using data collocation techniques. Threats Threats in terms of changing consumer behaviour, implementation cost for new technology can impact the business process of the municipality. The municipality will implement ERP system to organise transactional data. The administrative department needs to invest huge amount of money to implement ERP system. Investing too much mon ey on single technology can be identified as threat factor. VoIP technology integrated with 1Net MPLS-based IP VPN service can be used by the municipality to communicate with people of Emirates (Washburn, 2009). Vision Statement Drainage Department of the municipality provides premier service to increase the efficiency level of wastewater management facility. They are trying to create a healthy environment by improving wastewater management facility. They have planned to invest more than 150 Million Dirham to expand network of construction projects within next few years. They are planning to increase car parking facility in near future. The construction projects network will cover an area of 100,000 cubic meters. Mission Statement The municipality works on betterment for all the people of Emirates. They always try to provide quality service to customers. The corporation tries to maintain an honest service relationship with the people. The administrative department tries to design a sustainable social growth model for all the people of Emirates. Corporate Values The municipality tries to maintain healthy service relationship with all the people of Emirates. They give importance on achieving result in terms of providing quality service. They are trying

Funeral Customs of Hispanics and Italians Essay

Funeral Customs of Hispanics and Italians - Essay Example As well, in some cultures, men and women are treated differently. In order to come to a more clear and knowledgeable understanding on this subject matter, we will be thoroughly investigating and appropriating the funeral customs of two cultures in particular: Hispanics and Italians. The aim of this paper is to thoroughly discuss all of the key elements involved in Hispanic and Italian funerals; the customs, the beliefs, the traditions, as well as any and all other key elements in regards to this. By doing this, we will come to a more intellectual and understanding viewpoint on the issue at hand. This is what will be dissertated in the following. According to the U.S. Census 2000, the largest minority population belongs to people of Hispanic origin. Although this population might share the same language - Spanish - they might be of any race. Furthermore, their spiritual belief systems might vary depending upon their current or historic country of origin. Therefore, as they plan for honoring the departure of their loved ones, cultural differences will often times emerge and will therefore need to be considered. Hispanics are often more accepting of death because it is such a part of their religion and heritage. In fact, Mexico and Puerto Rico observe The Day of the Dead each year. Like African Americans, for example, Hispanics express their grief openly at funerals, with most customs following the Orthodox-Catholic service. Some, however, reflect earlier influences. "For example, small yellow flowers strewn about the house or on the path to the cemetery mirror Aztec traditions for Mexican Americans." (Planner, 2006). In regards to Italian funeral customs, there are few similarities with many more significant differences. The Italian village system of behavior surrounding death and burial has endured through the Italians' emigration, with the most striking characteristic of the persisting funeral pattern being that of the fact that the pattern itself is in fact borrowed. The rural Italian family will deprive itself of limited comforts and will sacrifice any small reserve it might have accumulated in order to pay for the funeral expenses including new clothes for the deceased. "In fact, behavior surrounding death and burial so permeates daily life in the rural south that the peasants may be described as 'death oriented'." (Moss & Thompson, 1959, pp.35-41). Funeral expenditures are considered to be a necessity, however regardless of disproportion to the other expenses of life. In order to calm the soul, useful objects such as cigarettes and matches and small change are placed near the body, and objects which the deceased had been particularly fond of are sent with him in the casket. "If something of importance was forgotten it would often be sent in the casket of another villager who died later with hope that the two souls would meet." (Mathias, n.d.). As well, in order that the soul would not be able to find its way back into the house if it returned, the body was always carried out by the feet first; by not seeing the door as it left it would not be able to locate it again later. Once the funeral itself is over, the mattress of the deathbed is taken out and washed and a meal is brought from a neighbor's house for the family and close friends. It is with this meal that the acts directly concerned with the funeral are ended. "From now o n the soul will be assisted

Biology and Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Biology and Psychology - Essay Example The psychological state of anger,fear or ability to understand differs from one being to another (individualistically) yet it does not differ from an organism to another -this depends on how it has from efforts and abilities to react and act according to what it is able to do and unable to do physically. The dimensions of one abling himself to understand what their abilities could be and what he could get from reactions both categorized as pleasant and unpleasant could allow him to fail or succeed in what he wants to do and is able to get from things and objects of pleasurea and desirable to him. The way of receiving and perceiving things makes one able or unable to get thoughts and actions properly fit together to be able to find a way of compromising how to work in a certain frame to be able to get what he wants and push away what he does noit want. Such things exist such as in obesity which occurs when one has a feeding disorder and is unable to stop because the food pleasure is something which takes their mind off something else and is unable to get other pleasures such as attracting the females in his life. This biological defect brings him to seclusion, deluding ideas and inability to communicate in a manner to be able to find the pleasure he would like to have outside the sphere of food. Yet not all people have this problem who are obese. A lot of people are unable to get thoughts out of their minds which help them not work what they want they want which brings them to be dysfuntional in their ability to face the 'fear factor' of refusal,discharge from a job due to lack of beauty,etc. Yet,although this affects a great number of people,alot of obese people live a normal life by adjusting to their desires of food for the fun of eating and loving food and the fact that they are humurous and sociable and a well wished for companion in a party. Another example of thoughts which affect the biology of the person is the fact that they could not think properly and adjust their ideas to fit what they want and are unable to get what they seem to wish for and want due to the fact that they could not keep up with the track of ideas they have in their minds. This occurs due to an inability to face and track the speed of thoughts that occur in the mind and heart from confused feelings weld and yielded by the inability to handle the self and thus results in the fact that they become explosive as a manner of what they think is a relieving of the ideas and thoughts that rush through their veins and ideas and thoughts do not leave but just fester inside and help the person just take up such belief as a habit. Biological factors and differences in hormone diffusions inside the body do not show or work the fact that such physiological differences between man and woman,child and adult have any effect except for the way that they arrange their thoughts and ideas and how they understand themselves and how they frame the meaning of communicating and how they understand the other and what it means to them to face the other and what they need and desire the resulting actions of communications to be with such people. Also,grammatical and lexical meanings in the

Consequences of Attacks via Cyberspace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Consequences of Attacks via Cyberspace - Essay Example The consequences of unauthorized access, on the one hand, and the tampering with information, on the other, are enormous, whether accessed in terms of its impact upon individuals, corporate entities or the economy as a whole (Sturdevant, 2005). Indeed, a considerable of the potential consequences of the unauthorised violation of information, or of cyberattacks, highlights the aforementioned. Much has been written about the consequences of cyberattacks and the extent to which the theft, unauthorized access or tampering with information has the potential to wreak havoc upon individual lives, companies and economies. In explaining this, Schwartau (1994) identified three levels of information warfare, each of which had its own unique characteristics, targets and, naturally, consequences. The first level, referred to by Schwartau (1994) as interpersonal Attacks,' focuses on identity theft, both of individuals and of corporations. The successful theft of identity, entailing the gathering of personal/corporate information and records, allows the identity thief to pose as the person/entity in question. Through possession of information such a credit history, driving records, medical files/history and accounts, the identity thief can proceed to harass the entity/person in question and assassinate his/her character or corporate reputation (Schwartau, 1994). While interpersonal attacks, primarily limited to identity threat, are classified as the first level of information warfare, the harm done to victims can take years and substantial amounts of money to repair. As Block (2007) reports, official crime statistics indicate that approximately 5% of all American adults have been victimized and, as a consequence, have witnessed both the destruction of their credit history and, in many instances, their reputation. On the corporate level, however, identity theft may be identified as a serious annoyance more than a problem insofar as the theft of corporate identity is much more difficult than the theft of individual identity and much easier to disprove. That does not mean to imply that it is not problematic or that it does not expose the entity in question to both financial loss and negative publicity but only that its consequences are much more containable than those which result from one of the other two levels of information warfare. Within the context of level two information warfare, referred to by Schwartau (1994) as InfoWar, the consequences are infinitely more serious and substantially more costly. InfoWar, as defined by Schwartau (1994), involves sabotage, the theft of company records, including client and subscriber lists, and industrial espionage. A not uncommon scenario can involve the theft of client and subscriber lists and their subsequent selling to a competitor. In order to highlight the magnitude of the consequences of this act of InfoWar, Gold (2001) discusses the consequences of InfoWar in relation to Encyclopedia Britannica, which was subjected to such a cyberattack incident approximately ten years ago. Its database, containing the names of 3,000,000 subscribers was stolen and sold to a competitor. That database, considered the company's most valuable asset, was conservatively estimated at $1,000,000. Needless to say, the company lost tens of thousands of subscribers, not to mention the financia l loss it incurred (Gold, 2001). InfoWar is not,

What are the main features of Christian teaching and practice, church Essay

What are the main features of Christian teaching and practice, church organization and life which distinguish Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism from one another - Essay Example In fact, the division of the religion occurred itself for the division of faith and the way of teaching pertaining to the religion and owing to various area. Roman Catholicism, which is the most popular among the three on the global perspective and have more than 1 billion members, believes in the reconciliation amidst all the smaller divisions within the religion. The Catholicism emphasizes in religious hierarchy and comprises precisely of those churches that are headed by bishops in communion with Pope, the supreme commandant of all the catholic churches. The Catholics trace their origin in apostolic succession which is believed to be found directly by Jesus Christ. The Eastern Orthodoxy finds their communion in Patriarchal Sees of the East and are is quite similar to the Roman Catholics that trace their origin through Apostolic Succession. The churches under this regime give recognition to the first three councils which are ecumenical namely Nicaea, Constantinople and Ephesus. These divisions of Christianity reject the definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and in its place, emphasizes on the Miaphysite Christology. The Eastern Orthodoxy also focuses upon the autonomy of individuals. The Protestants are the orthodox followers of Christianity and many of them identify themselves as â€Å"Christians or born-again Christians†. They maintain a neat distance with the typical confessionals of the Christian communities adhering to other faiths. Protestants strongly deviate from the faith of denominational. They declare themselves strongly as â€Å"non-denominational†. This religious segment is often guided by individual pastors and they have very little affiliation with historical

Energy and States of Matter Essay Example for Free

Energy and States of Matter Essay Everything changes, that is a fact. We can find changes, even in simple things that we use. Have you ever asked why does an ice cube turn back onto water when you let it stand outside the freezer? Or do you know why an ice cream melts? We knew about the three basic phases of matter – solid, liquid and gas. From our basic chemistry, we taught about the change of state or phase of matter wherein soli becomes liquid and liquid turns to gas and vice versa. The question is, why do they change phase? To really understand those phenomena, we should look onto the two different graphical illustrations of the changes of states of a substance, cooling curve and heating curve and thereby understand what is really happening on the molecular structure of a substance. Heat is very crucial in these changes on the form of certain substances. This is the energy transformed between two objects brought about by the difference on both temperatures. It means, when you let an ice cube in a plate, after a day, you will find it gone already. The heat causes the ice to melt and eventually turn it into gas and disperse it onto the air. Two types of energy involved are the Kinetic Energy (KE), the motion energy which is dependent on the mass and velocity of an object and the Potential Energy (PE), the resting energy or energy due to position and composition. Heat affects KE and said to be directly proportional to each other. As you increase the heat, the temperature increases resulting to an increase on KE. Heat, Temperature, KE and PE are the main factors why do changes on state of matter occur. Changes are due to evaporation (liquid to gas), freezing (liquid to solid), condensation (gas to liquid), melting (solid to liquid), sublimation (solid to gas) and deposition (gas to solid). All of these processes are result of the changes on the amount of heat added or removed from a certain substance, thereby increasing or decreasing the temperature thru time. Cooling Curve Cooling curve is a graphical representation of the changes of states of substances as heat is uniformly removed from it. At t0 – t1 heat is removed from the gaseous state. The average KE of the gas particles decreases as the temperature drops until it is reached at t1 where gas starts to liquefy. The temperature at which gas and liquid coexist is called liquefaction or condensation point of the substance, which is just equivalent to boiling point of the heating curve. At this time, the average PE remains constant because there is no change yet on the composition of the gas. At t ¬1 – t2 (liquefaction point) there is no change on the average KE of the particles and temperature stays at constant level. Heat is still being removed causing the decrease on Average PE. Since there is decreasing amount of heat, there is a failure to overcome forces of attraction between particles of the liquid forming gas. The gas particles are compressed and converted into liquid wherein stored PE is released. At this time, the amount of gas decreases while the amount of liquid increases, until reaching t2 where all the gases have been converted to liquid. At t2 – t3, the average KE of the liquid particles decreases and the temperature reaches low level until t3 where the liquid starts to solidify. Freezing or crystallization of substances occurs at the temperature where liquid and solid coexist. At this point, liquid is no longer a liquid but already turned onto solid state. The molecules of the liquid have been compressed as result of continuous removal of heat from the substance. This time, the average PE continues to decrease because of the amount of heat being removed. Freezing point is just equivalent to melting point in the heating curve. At t3 – t4, there is no change on the average KE and the temperature of the substance stays constant. Heat is still being removed causing a decrease on average PE of the substance. This time, the amount of liquid decreases and the amount of solid increases until reaching t4 when sufficient heat has been removed thus converting all the liquid into solid. The particles of the substance are oriented properly to form the crystalline lattice at the freezing point. Sometimes, it happens that the heat is continuously removed from the substance without crystallization. At this point, the temperature drops below its freezing point and errors in orienting the particles occur. This phenomenon is learned as Supercooling. We can reduce supercooling by introduction of a seed crystal for the crystallization to occur and thereby initiating the proper structure. Heating Curve Heating curve is just the opposite of cooling curve. The curve illustrates changes of states of a substance with uniform addition of heat to it. At t0 – t1 heat is added to the solid causing the increase on average KE of its particles. The particles are agitated making them disoriented and result into a slightly less ordered solid state. Temperature rises and at t1, solid starts to melt. T1 is termed as melting point of the substance on which solid and liquid coexist. At t1 – t2, there is no change on the average KE and the temperature stays constant. Since KE doesn’t change, average PE must increase as heat is continuously added. Now, forces of attraction between particles have been overcome because of high amount of heat. The amount of heat is being stored as potential energy. At this time, amount of solid decreases while the amount of liquid increases. Eventually at t2, sufficient heat has been added to convert the entire solid to liquid. At t2 ¬ – t3 the average KE and temperature increases. When the increasing temperature reaches t3, the liquid starts to evaporate. At this temperature (t2), liquid and gas coexist and is termed as boiling point of the substance. At t3 – t4, there is no change in the average KE and temperature remains constant. The force of attraction between liquid particles has been overcome due to addition of more heat. The amount of heat added is still being stored in form of PE. PE increases and the amount of liquid decreases while the amount of gas increases. At t4, sufficient heat has been added to convert all the liquid to gas. As oppose to supercooling, superheating also occurs where liquid is heated to a temperature above its boiling point without evaporation.

Application of ERP Implementation Methodology Framework

Application of ERP Implementation Methodology Framework Chapter 1 Introduction This chapter will begin with a presentation of the background of my research area. The presentation will thereafter be followed by a problem and Significance of the research that will result in the objective and research question of my study. Background Over the past years innovation has arguably become one of the most discussed and sought after organisation-capabilities. It is recognised as a major goal of economic activity and one of the most important instruments through which organisations can gain advantages over their competitors. In order to survive in highly competitive business environments, companies have to continuously change their business processes. New conditions in the marketplace have provided a special stimulus to modelling business processes: product expansion, competitive sales conditions, development of global distribution networks, better informed customers, and the orientation of businesses towards satisfying the individual needs of the customer. In the light of this, business process reengineering has often been employed, and information technology is a frequently utilised approach used to improve business processes. This study stressed the necessity for organisational restructuring in the context of global information connectivity. Business Process Reengineering is an organisational method demanding radical redesign of business processes in order to achieve greater efficiency, better quality and more competitive production (Hammer and Champy, 1993). It means analysing and altering the business processes of the organisation as a whole. A business process includes activities and tasks that cross functional and/or organisational boundaries. Information technology (IT) is the most important factor in enabling newly redesigned processes. Modern information technology is oriented towards business processes and communications between persons using these processes, and is therefore called process and information technology (Ould, 1995). In that way, Business Process Reengineering can be described as organisational process redesign, with the direct influence of IT. At the same time organisational expenditure on Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) has also grown significantly during the 1990s and beyond. ERP systems have been adopted by the majority of large private sector organisations and many public sector organisations in the UK, Europe and the industrialised world in general. We would not expect this growing trend to materialise unless significant advantages were to be expected from the introduction of ERP systems. It is because ERP systems have such a significant impact on the organisation, the working practices of individuals and on human interaction that we wish to explore their impact on innovation. Origin of the term ERP In the 1960s, no manufacturing company could afford to own a computer. Therefore, both manufacturing and inventories were handled on the basis that companies must hold enough stocks to satisfy customer demand, and that customers would order what they had ordered in the past, quantity and time wise. There after manufacturing management systems have evolved in stages over the past 30 years from a simple means of calculating materials requirements to the automation of an entire enterprise. In the 1970s and 1980s, over-frequent changes in sales forecasts, entailing continual readjustments in production, as well as inflexible fixed system parameters, led material requirement planning (MRP) and master production schedule (MPS) to evolve into a new concept called manufacturing resource planning (MRPII) in 1980 (Kakouris Polychronopoulos, 2005). Finally in the early 1990s the generic concept Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), incorporating all the MRPII functionality, in addition to Financ e, Supply Chain, Human Resources and Project Management functionality (Anderson, 1982; Wallace, 1986; Wilson et al., 1994). Figure1 illustrates the gradual evolution of the Enterprise Resource Planning with respect to time. Enterprise resource planning systems are commercial software packages that enable the integration of transaction-oriented data and business processes throughout an organisation (Markus and Tanis, 2000). The key elements of an Enterprise Resource Planning system according to Miller (2003) are: one large real-time database which reduces data redundancy and improves accuracy; integrated business process that cut across business functions such as supply chain management; and seamless transitions between business transactions. According to Newman (2003), Enterprise Resource Planning Systems are software modules for different business functions that are linked by a common database to produce an integrated enterprise-wide system. Enterprise Resource Planning packages, the enterprise system that makes company stick together, it is a nervous system of every corporation, large or small, when you check inside it tells whats going on, it helps you act as what nervous system do, how to react, to treat the information about competitors, about products, how do you get best out of it. It pays employees, makes billing, run accounts, interacts with customers, ships goods, basically it runs the process of any company and helps accelerate business innovation for your customers. They build process factories for enterprises, which are so flexible and configurable for the identical companies so that they can do different things with the same factories and Helping Companies Become Best-Run Businesses. ERP integrates key business and management functions and provides a view of the happenings in the company, in the areas of finance, human resources, manufacturing, supply chain, etc. (Davenport, 1998; James and Wolf, 2000). An ERP solution is valuable when it represents the characteristics demonstrated in Figure 2. Significance and objective of research In the 1990s, customers experienced more costly and complex ERP implementations then they expected (Eschinger et. al., 2003). One research group found that the average ERP implementation took 232 months, had a total cost of ownership of $15M, and rewarded the business with an average negative net present value of $1.5M (Wailgum, 2008). Because of their wide scope of application within a business, ERP software systems are typically complex and usually impose significant changes on staff work practices, Implementing ERP software system is typically not an in-house skill, so even smaller projects are more cost effective if specialist ERP implementation consultants are employed. The length of time to implement an ERP system depends on the size of the business, the scope of the change and willingness of the customer to take ownership for the project. A small project (e.g., a company of less than 100 staff) may be planned and delivered within 3-9 months; however, a large, multi-site or multi-country implementation may take years (for more details see table 1 and table 2). Although implementing an ERP system may be costly and time-consuming, its benefits are worthwhile. However, there are a number of examples where organisations have not been successful in reaping the potential benefits that motivated them to make large investments in ERP implementations (Davenport, 1998). The research is also predicting that ERP new license revenue will have fallen 24% in 2009, as companies severely rein back implementation and expansion projects. While the organisation expects ERP spending to rise slightly in 2010, vendors will be fighting hard for every available dollar, and that should translate into cost savings for customers (Kanaracus, 2010). Therefore year 2010 is predicted to be different and better in terms of ERP implementation. According to Langenwalter (2000), Enterprise Resource Planning implementation failure rate was from 40% to 60%, yet companies try to implement these systems because they are absolutely essential to responsive planning and communication (see Appendix 2 for ERP solution satisfaction). The competitive pressure unleashed by the process of globalisation is driving implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning projects in increasingly large numbers, so methodological framework for dealing with complex problem of evaluating Enterprise Resource Planning projects is required (Teltumbde, 2000). All ERP vendors came up with solution and build their implementation methodology which they recommend to all their clients to utilise the approach during their implementation and continuously looking for improvements in those methods. Therefore the Research in this subject will value the investment put in by the companies in these projects. The primary objective of this dissertation was to explore the application of ERP implementation methodology framework by different vendors when implementing ERP and to find commonalities or diversion in the ways of improvement by them. Therefore the key research questions that are the focus of this study are: To what extent different companies follow AcceleratedSAP as methodology when implementing SAP? Is different companies use different innovative ways to improve the process? Are there commonalities or diversion in this innovation? Chapter 2 Literature Review The purpose of this chapter is to present my theoretical framework. In this chapter first I will present different implementation framework models from some researchers and academician. Then select one model as my theoretical base. Information Systems Development Methodology Creation of an Information System is not a trivial matter, and must strive to fulfil four main goals; usefulness, usability, reliability and flexibility (Kruchten, 2000). To minimise risks of failure in any of these primary objectives there are a number of specialised development methodologies available, each with different strengths and weaknesses and suited to different project types: The Classic Model This model, often called the Waterfall model (figure 3), represents the traditional software lifecycle, and outlines an Information System project in clearly defined, partitioned phases that follow in sequential order (though the actual phases are not always the same) (Avgerou and Cornford, 1998). This approach has strengths when requirements are well known and unchanging, unfortunately problems with this approach are quickly identified. The main failings of this model stem from its linear nature, where each stage must be completed and the outputted deliverable passed to the next phase. This produces an inflexible model that is hard to step back to previous stages without changing everything (Avison and Fitzgerald, 2006). Due to this separated structure a gap of understanding can become present between users and developers, and as no deliverables are viewed until the end of the sequence unsatisfactory results can be delivered. It also typically suffers from long development times (wh ich are certainly not available in this project) and as such is not usually practised in the formal fashion (Avgerou and Cornford, 1998). This model alone is clearly unsuitable to the ERP implementation project as completion in a timely fashion is a key objective, and with this extra constraint risks will be extremely high. As such requirements capture/analysis will need to on-going throughout the entire process. With these points noted, a partially phased approach is attractive from a project management point of view, and an extensive initial requirements capture phase could greatly reduce project risks through understanding of the problem domain. Business Process Reengineering Implementing Methodologies One approach of information system development, which takes into account strategic aspects, is business process reengineering. It has presented organisation with the opportunity to rethink out dated procedures, rules, and assumptions underlying their business activities. This opportunity is usually enabled partly by the application of technology to outdated process (Avison and Fitzgerald, 2006). The initial research of the subject starts with Business Process Reengineering which is achieved by the adoption of ERP as it streamline the organisations processes by integrating the information flow into a single system. The term business process reengineering had its origin at MIT during 1984-1989 while MITs enumerating management techniques for the 1990s. Business process reengineering simply means transformation from function based to process based. The radical redesign of a process is easily achieved by involving information technology (IT) in business processes and hence the prominence of IT in business process reengineering. IT is accepted not only as just a business process reengineering enabler (Hammer and Champy, 1993) but also as an essential enabler of business process reengineering (Davenport and Short, 1998). There exists a recursive relationship between business process reengineering and IT which can be utilised for thorough process change. In the modern times and due to rapid proliferation of computers in the business arena, business process reengineering through IT is getting a big boost. Business process reengineering using IT emanated from gradual progression in the use of computers from routine clerical job processing to IT-based decision making. Many corporations reaped benefits by re-engineering their processes at various stages of IT development. At the same time, re-engineering cannot be planned and achieved in small cautious steps for any corporation (Hammer, 1990). Some of the commonly used IT tools for re-engineering are ERP systems. First we adopt the work of Kettinger al.s (1997) for a literature review on business process reengineering implementing methodologies also chosen by Pellerin and Hadaya (2008). This implementation methodology proposes a generic stage-activity framework for conducting business process reengineering projects, because The technology is derived from the methodologies practiced by 25 leading reengineering consulting organisations and Unlike most business process reengineering studies, in which the unit of analysis is the organisation, Kettinger et al.s (1997) work is cantered on the business process reengineering project, which is more relevant to Information System professionals. Kettinger et al.s (1997) framework comprises six stages, each containing the following activities (See Figure 4). The first stage, envision (S1), typically involves the business process reengineering project champion engendering the support of the top management. A task force, including senior executives and individuals knowledgeable about an organisations processes, is authorised to target a business process for improvement based on a review of business strategy and IT opportunities in the hope of improving the organisations overall performance. The second stage, initiate (S2), encompasses the assignment of a reengineering project team, setting of the performance goals, project planning and shareholder/employee notification and buy-in. This is frequently achieved by developing a business case for reengineering via bench-marking, identifying external customer needs, and cost benefit analysis. The third stage, diagnose (S3), is classified as the documentation of the current process and sub processes in terms of process attributes such as activities, resources, communication, roles, IT, and cost. In identifying process requirements and assigning customers value, root causes for the problems are surfaced, and non-value-adding activities are identified. The fourth stage, redesign (S4), a new process design is developed. This is accomplished by devising process design alternatives through brainstorming and creativity techniques. The new design should meet strategic objective and fit with the human resource and IT architecture. Documentation and prototyping of the new process is typically conducted, and a design of new information system to support the new process is completed. The fifth stage, reconstruct (S5), heavily relies on change management techniques to ensure smooth migration to new process responsibilities and human resources roles. During this stage, the IT platform and systems are implemented, and the users go through the training and transition. The sixth and last stage, evaluate (S6), requires monitoring of the new process to determine if it met its goal and often involves linkage to an organisations total quality program. This methodology was empirically derived from the methodologies practiced by 25 leading reengineering consulting firms which takes the management accounting perspective by attempting to reorganise business processes while using information as an enabler then it provides a set of tools and techniques to facilitate the reengineering effort and unlike most BPR studies, in which the unit of analysis is the organisation (Kettinger et al., 1997; Pellerin and Hadaya, 2008). This justifies the use of this methodology to build on the relation of further theories but just to compare and have further opinion let look at another business process reengineering implementation methodology. A seven-step methodology, as shown in Figure 5, that shows the various steps in IT driven business process reengineering implementation (Davenport and Short, 1998; Armistead and Rowland, 1996). These steps are prioritising processes based on the comparative importance of objectives, identifying the processes to be redesigned, understanding and measuring/benchmarking the existing processes, identifying the appropriate IT tool, designing/building a process prototype, testing the reengineered process, and implementing the changed process. The first step is to define the objectives of the process redesign which can be cost reduction, time reduction, improvement in output quality and/or improvement of quality of work life. Rarely, organisations become successful in meeting multiple objectives, concurrently. In the second step, selection of the processes to be redesigned is carried out. The two approaches, namely, exhaustive and high-impact approaches are available for the selection of the processes to be redesigned. Exhaustive approach ranks all processes to be redesigned based on the order of urgency prior to the identification of the process to be redesigned whereas the high-impact approach tries to identify only the most important processes which are in conflict with business vision and process objectives. The third step tries to measure the process before redesign in order to avoid repetition and to set a baseline for future improvements. In the fourth step, it is better to have a picture of all latest IT technologi es available for redesign prior to the redesign and freezing of the redesigned process under study. The fifth step can be easily dealt with by using IT as a design tool in creating a more generic design of the process under study in arriving at a suitable organisational prototype. After generating the redesigned process prototype, implement the same in one of the units of the organisation to study the actual benefits before launching it on an organisation wide basis and the same is done in the sixth step. If the pilot launch is found successful in meeting the process objectives, launch the redesigned process throughout the organisation which is the seventh and last step in IT-based implementation of the redesigned process. If both the implementation methodologies are compared there is not just the difference in number of steps between the two methodologies, there is also the difference in the approach in cut-overs where training of users are missing in second as well the pilots and rollouts are mentioned in the later methodology. This goes with Kettinger et als (1997) findings that, while business process reengineering implementing methodologies may vary based on philosophical differences, there is enough commonality among the practiced approaches to generally describe a prototypical business process reengineering efforts. Generic Enterprise Resource Planning Implementing Methodologies In the past, companies used to decide how they wanted to do business and then made a decision about a software package that best supported their business processes. This was changed with ERP systems that required the business processes to be modified to fit the system (Davenport, 1998). Business Process Reengineering implementation exists ranging from technology enabled re-engineering to clean slate re-engineering. If ERP system is chosen first, then the re-engineering is driven by the chosen ERP system or re-engineering is technology enabled. The reason why many companies chose to conduct ERP system development was to attempt to solve all their organisational problems without reengineering business processes first. Then the Costs involved with such re-engineering are very low as alteration done on the system is least or none. In clean slate re-engineering, design starts from scratch and ERP system software is highly customised to fit the processes of the enterprise in discussion. ERP implementation significantly impacts company culture, organisational structure, business processes, in addition to procedures and rules. Furthermore, ERP applications integrate many best business practices and much knowledge that could be worthwhile if included as a part of BPR projects. By taking the best practices inherent in ERP applications, companies can change their processes simultaneously with technological change. As a result, many companies changed their business processes to fit the ERP system requirements, and the possibilities of ERP systems have been used to underpin Business Process Reengineering (Kooch, 2001, Chenn, 2001). As ERP systems have traditionally taken too long to implement, a dynamic and incremental implementation of ERP components is recommended as opposed to massive reengineering. Also pointed by Ahmed (1999) the focus of ERP implementations has shifted from matching business processes with the ERP system to developing knowledge-workers that can quickly understand and work with redesigned processes and realise the ERP-enabled benefits. Boudreau and Robey (2005), suggest a vital importance to acceptance of ERP systems. They also note that if not successfully implemented, users may work around the system and otherwise doom the project to costly duplication of effort, or worse, system failure. A phased implementation approach is highlighted in Robey et al. (2002). It is important to have a structured approach, similar to systems development, for the implementation and maintenance of ERP systems. Systems development theory uses the concept of a lifecycle and stages in the lifecycle to indicate development of information systems. The waterfall model, incremental model, RAD (rapid application development) model and spiral model are some of the systems development methods prevalent in the literature. Newer approaches to systems development address component-based development using off-the-shelf packages, agile development and the unified process for object-oriented software development (Pressman, 2005). The newer approaches have fewer stages in the development of systems. For example, the unified process which draws upon the best practices of conventional software process models has inception, elaboration, construction and transition phases. A common aspect of all these models is that they focus little attention on implementation and the post implementation of the system. The literature review undertaken revealed a lack of research with regard to some critical factors of ERP implementation (eg client consultation, schedule and plans), and this could be due to the fact that these factors are related to any information system project, not particularly to ERP project implementation. However, and generally speaking, there has not yet been a common comprehensive or integrative approach to ERP implementation. Successful ERP project implementation is a complex and difficult task. Implementing an ERP system package causes vast change that needs to be managed carefully to get the full advantages (Bingi et al, 1999; Sor, 1999). More importantly, it has been stressed by many that it is really a mistake to view ERP project implementation as merely an IT project (Davenport, 2000; Milford Stewart, 2000; OLeary, 2000). A major difference between ERP systems and traditional information systems comes from the integrated nature of ERP applications. Implementing an ERP system causes dramatic changes that need to be carefully administrated to reap the advantages of an ERP solution. Holland and Light (1999) cite that the implementation of an ERP software package involves a mix of business process change and software configuration to align the software with the business processes. In that sense, it has become clear through the literature review, and studying the experiences of leading organisations, that the implementation of an ERP system is radically different from traditional systems development. In an ERP system implementation, the key focus has shifted from a heavy emphasis on technical analysis and programming towards business process design, business-focused software configuration (Kelly et al, 1999), and legacy data clean-up (Smethurst Kawalek, 1999). In essence, there are several critical and inter-related issues that must be carefully considered to ensure successful implementation of an ERP system project. The framework (Figure 6) presented in this report is the result a major research study undertaken to propose an integrative Critical Success Factors view of ERP. ERP system implementation has been subdivided into three levels: strategic, tactical, and operational. Each level contains a number of critical factors. These levels of implementation, however, are not independent of each other, and each level should be used to derive the next level. Moreover, each level requires differing inputs; for example, there is a direct relationship between the implementation level at which a decision is being taken and the characteristics of the information required supporting decision making (Bocij et al, 2008). Communication Communication is one of most challenging and difficult tasks in any ERP implementation project (Welti, 1999). Slevin and Pinto (1987) define communication as the provision of an appropriate network and necessary data to all key factors in the project implementation. Communication has to cover the scope, objectives, and tasks of an ERP implementation project (Sumner, 1999). Failure to establish and manage the communication process with stakeholders can lead to a lack of support from stakeholders, disapproval of the deliverables and dissatisfaction. ERP implementation levels Strategic level The decisions made at this level significantly change the manner in which business is being done (Bocij et al, 2008), and these decisions are the responsibility of top management (Schultheis Sumner, 1995; Turban et al, 2000). This level can be considered as the process of establishing overall goals and of planning how to achieve those goals. Kelly et al (1999) suggested that the strategic level is the premeditated plan for transforming the organisation, enabling it to operate in the new style environment. Current legacy system evaluation: This includes the existing IT (hardware and software), business processes, organisation structure, and culture. Holland and Light (1999) argue that the nature and scale of problems that are likely to be encountered can be defined by evaluating the existing legacy system (by asking what the status of the enterprises legacy system is and how it will affect the transition to ERP and common business processes). It is clear that ERP implementation involves a complex transition from legacy information systems and business processes to an integrated IT infrastructure and common business process throughout the organisation (Gibson et al, 1999). Project vision and objective: It is very important that the organisation has a clear sense of whom and what it is before implementing an ERP project (Davenport, 2000). A global survey showed that an understanding of business objectives and clear vision are key success factors (Cooke Peterson, 1998). Slevin and Pinto (1987) define project vision as the initial clarity of goals and general direction. Welti (1999) advises on determining the project vision in the planning phase, particularly within the project scope, where the project scope includes the project definition, objectives, and strategy. He argues that all these components of the project scope are compulsory to create a clear project vision. At this stage in the ERP project, the vision should provide a direction and general objective, and no details are required. ERP implementation strategy: This will be reviewed in this level to determine the impact of ERP system implementation on the enterprise. Trepper (1999) argues that the organisations executive managers must understand how ERP system implementation will impact on the organisation to ensure a smooth transition. Holland and Light (1999) suggest that the propensity of an organisation for change should influence the choice of ERP implementation project strategy. There are two main technical options to implement an ERP system: modify the ERP system package to suit an organisations requirements or the implementation of a standard package with minimum deviation from the standard settings. Companies that do not select the second option are liable to face major difficulties (Bancroft et al, 1998; Martin, 1998; Gibson et al, 1999). Hiring consultants: Due to the complexities of implementing an ERP system, most companies choose to hire consultants to help them select, configure, and implement the system. Welti (1999) argues that the success of a project depends on the capabilities of the consultants, because they have in-depth knowledge of the software. Somers and Nelson (2001) point out those consultants may be involved in different stages of the ERP project implementation. There are hundreds of companies that provide such ERP services. Since it is a critical success factor, it has to be managed and monitored very carefully. Benchmarking: Al-Mashari and Zairi (2000) argue that benchmarking works essentially at capturing both external and internal best practices related to all aspects of ERP system implementation, and enabling the transfer of knowledge across all levels of project implementation. They argue that benchmarking can play a significant role in shaping the strategic direction to be taken for change introduction using an ERP package. Tactical level At the tactical level, also termed managerial level, the medium-term planning of ERP specific organisational issues is largely concerned, where decisions are made by middle managers (Turban et al, 2000). In order to make sure that the enterprise is meeting its targets, objectives of top management are accomplished, and it is not wasting its resources, the tactical level provides middle-level managers with the information they need to monitor the performance of the organisation, control operations, and allocate resources and set policies effectively (Schultheis Sumner, 1995; Bocij et al, 2008). Client consultation: Slevin and Pinto (1987) define client consultation as the communication and consultation with, and active listening to all affected parties, mainly the client. It is essential for an organisation to keep its clients aware of its future project to avoid misconception. They also argued that the consultation with clients should occur early in the process; otherwise the chance of subsequent client acceptance will be lowered. In general, this factor has not been thoroughly discussed in the literature reviewed. Business process change (BPC): As mentioned before, there are two main options to implement ERP syst Application of ERP Implementation Methodology Framework Application of ERP Implementation Methodology Framework Chapter 1 Introduction This chapter will begin with a presentation of the background of my research area. The presentation will thereafter be followed by a problem and Significance of the research that will result in the objective and research question of my study. Background Over the past years innovation has arguably become one of the most discussed and sought after organisation-capabilities. It is recognised as a major goal of economic activity and one of the most important instruments through which organisations can gain advantages over their competitors. In order to survive in highly competitive business environments, companies have to continuously change their business processes. New conditions in the marketplace have provided a special stimulus to modelling business processes: product expansion, competitive sales conditions, development of global distribution networks, better informed customers, and the orientation of businesses towards satisfying the individual needs of the customer. In the light of this, business process reengineering has often been employed, and information technology is a frequently utilised approach used to improve business processes. This study stressed the necessity for organisational restructuring in the context of global information connectivity. Business Process Reengineering is an organisational method demanding radical redesign of business processes in order to achieve greater efficiency, better quality and more competitive production (Hammer and Champy, 1993). It means analysing and altering the business processes of the organisation as a whole. A business process includes activities and tasks that cross functional and/or organisational boundaries. Information technology (IT) is the most important factor in enabling newly redesigned processes. Modern information technology is oriented towards business processes and communications between persons using these processes, and is therefore called process and information technology (Ould, 1995). In that way, Business Process Reengineering can be described as organisational process redesign, with the direct influence of IT. At the same time organisational expenditure on Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) has also grown significantly during the 1990s and beyond. ERP systems have been adopted by the majority of large private sector organisations and many public sector organisations in the UK, Europe and the industrialised world in general. We would not expect this growing trend to materialise unless significant advantages were to be expected from the introduction of ERP systems. It is because ERP systems have such a significant impact on the organisation, the working practices of individuals and on human interaction that we wish to explore their impact on innovation. Origin of the term ERP In the 1960s, no manufacturing company could afford to own a computer. Therefore, both manufacturing and inventories were handled on the basis that companies must hold enough stocks to satisfy customer demand, and that customers would order what they had ordered in the past, quantity and time wise. There after manufacturing management systems have evolved in stages over the past 30 years from a simple means of calculating materials requirements to the automation of an entire enterprise. In the 1970s and 1980s, over-frequent changes in sales forecasts, entailing continual readjustments in production, as well as inflexible fixed system parameters, led material requirement planning (MRP) and master production schedule (MPS) to evolve into a new concept called manufacturing resource planning (MRPII) in 1980 (Kakouris Polychronopoulos, 2005). Finally in the early 1990s the generic concept Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), incorporating all the MRPII functionality, in addition to Financ e, Supply Chain, Human Resources and Project Management functionality (Anderson, 1982; Wallace, 1986; Wilson et al., 1994). Figure1 illustrates the gradual evolution of the Enterprise Resource Planning with respect to time. Enterprise resource planning systems are commercial software packages that enable the integration of transaction-oriented data and business processes throughout an organisation (Markus and Tanis, 2000). The key elements of an Enterprise Resource Planning system according to Miller (2003) are: one large real-time database which reduces data redundancy and improves accuracy; integrated business process that cut across business functions such as supply chain management; and seamless transitions between business transactions. According to Newman (2003), Enterprise Resource Planning Systems are software modules for different business functions that are linked by a common database to produce an integrated enterprise-wide system. Enterprise Resource Planning packages, the enterprise system that makes company stick together, it is a nervous system of every corporation, large or small, when you check inside it tells whats going on, it helps you act as what nervous system do, how to react, to treat the information about competitors, about products, how do you get best out of it. It pays employees, makes billing, run accounts, interacts with customers, ships goods, basically it runs the process of any company and helps accelerate business innovation for your customers. They build process factories for enterprises, which are so flexible and configurable for the identical companies so that they can do different things with the same factories and Helping Companies Become Best-Run Businesses. ERP integrates key business and management functions and provides a view of the happenings in the company, in the areas of finance, human resources, manufacturing, supply chain, etc. (Davenport, 1998; James and Wolf, 2000). An ERP solution is valuable when it represents the characteristics demonstrated in Figure 2. Significance and objective of research In the 1990s, customers experienced more costly and complex ERP implementations then they expected (Eschinger et. al., 2003). One research group found that the average ERP implementation took 232 months, had a total cost of ownership of $15M, and rewarded the business with an average negative net present value of $1.5M (Wailgum, 2008). Because of their wide scope of application within a business, ERP software systems are typically complex and usually impose significant changes on staff work practices, Implementing ERP software system is typically not an in-house skill, so even smaller projects are more cost effective if specialist ERP implementation consultants are employed. The length of time to implement an ERP system depends on the size of the business, the scope of the change and willingness of the customer to take ownership for the project. A small project (e.g., a company of less than 100 staff) may be planned and delivered within 3-9 months; however, a large, multi-site or multi-country implementation may take years (for more details see table 1 and table 2). Although implementing an ERP system may be costly and time-consuming, its benefits are worthwhile. However, there are a number of examples where organisations have not been successful in reaping the potential benefits that motivated them to make large investments in ERP implementations (Davenport, 1998). The research is also predicting that ERP new license revenue will have fallen 24% in 2009, as companies severely rein back implementation and expansion projects. While the organisation expects ERP spending to rise slightly in 2010, vendors will be fighting hard for every available dollar, and that should translate into cost savings for customers (Kanaracus, 2010). Therefore year 2010 is predicted to be different and better in terms of ERP implementation. According to Langenwalter (2000), Enterprise Resource Planning implementation failure rate was from 40% to 60%, yet companies try to implement these systems because they are absolutely essential to responsive planning and communication (see Appendix 2 for ERP solution satisfaction). The competitive pressure unleashed by the process of globalisation is driving implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning projects in increasingly large numbers, so methodological framework for dealing with complex problem of evaluating Enterprise Resource Planning projects is required (Teltumbde, 2000). All ERP vendors came up with solution and build their implementation methodology which they recommend to all their clients to utilise the approach during their implementation and continuously looking for improvements in those methods. Therefore the Research in this subject will value the investment put in by the companies in these projects. The primary objective of this dissertation was to explore the application of ERP implementation methodology framework by different vendors when implementing ERP and to find commonalities or diversion in the ways of improvement by them. Therefore the key research questions that are the focus of this study are: To what extent different companies follow AcceleratedSAP as methodology when implementing SAP? Is different companies use different innovative ways to improve the process? Are there commonalities or diversion in this innovation? Chapter 2 Literature Review The purpose of this chapter is to present my theoretical framework. In this chapter first I will present different implementation framework models from some researchers and academician. Then select one model as my theoretical base. Information Systems Development Methodology Creation of an Information System is not a trivial matter, and must strive to fulfil four main goals; usefulness, usability, reliability and flexibility (Kruchten, 2000). To minimise risks of failure in any of these primary objectives there are a number of specialised development methodologies available, each with different strengths and weaknesses and suited to different project types: The Classic Model This model, often called the Waterfall model (figure 3), represents the traditional software lifecycle, and outlines an Information System project in clearly defined, partitioned phases that follow in sequential order (though the actual phases are not always the same) (Avgerou and Cornford, 1998). This approach has strengths when requirements are well known and unchanging, unfortunately problems with this approach are quickly identified. The main failings of this model stem from its linear nature, where each stage must be completed and the outputted deliverable passed to the next phase. This produces an inflexible model that is hard to step back to previous stages without changing everything (Avison and Fitzgerald, 2006). Due to this separated structure a gap of understanding can become present between users and developers, and as no deliverables are viewed until the end of the sequence unsatisfactory results can be delivered. It also typically suffers from long development times (wh ich are certainly not available in this project) and as such is not usually practised in the formal fashion (Avgerou and Cornford, 1998). This model alone is clearly unsuitable to the ERP implementation project as completion in a timely fashion is a key objective, and with this extra constraint risks will be extremely high. As such requirements capture/analysis will need to on-going throughout the entire process. With these points noted, a partially phased approach is attractive from a project management point of view, and an extensive initial requirements capture phase could greatly reduce project risks through understanding of the problem domain. Business Process Reengineering Implementing Methodologies One approach of information system development, which takes into account strategic aspects, is business process reengineering. It has presented organisation with the opportunity to rethink out dated procedures, rules, and assumptions underlying their business activities. This opportunity is usually enabled partly by the application of technology to outdated process (Avison and Fitzgerald, 2006). The initial research of the subject starts with Business Process Reengineering which is achieved by the adoption of ERP as it streamline the organisations processes by integrating the information flow into a single system. The term business process reengineering had its origin at MIT during 1984-1989 while MITs enumerating management techniques for the 1990s. Business process reengineering simply means transformation from function based to process based. The radical redesign of a process is easily achieved by involving information technology (IT) in business processes and hence the prominence of IT in business process reengineering. IT is accepted not only as just a business process reengineering enabler (Hammer and Champy, 1993) but also as an essential enabler of business process reengineering (Davenport and Short, 1998). There exists a recursive relationship between business process reengineering and IT which can be utilised for thorough process change. In the modern times and due to rapid proliferation of computers in the business arena, business process reengineering through IT is getting a big boost. Business process reengineering using IT emanated from gradual progression in the use of computers from routine clerical job processing to IT-based decision making. Many corporations reaped benefits by re-engineering their processes at various stages of IT development. At the same time, re-engineering cannot be planned and achieved in small cautious steps for any corporation (Hammer, 1990). Some of the commonly used IT tools for re-engineering are ERP systems. First we adopt the work of Kettinger al.s (1997) for a literature review on business process reengineering implementing methodologies also chosen by Pellerin and Hadaya (2008). This implementation methodology proposes a generic stage-activity framework for conducting business process reengineering projects, because The technology is derived from the methodologies practiced by 25 leading reengineering consulting organisations and Unlike most business process reengineering studies, in which the unit of analysis is the organisation, Kettinger et al.s (1997) work is cantered on the business process reengineering project, which is more relevant to Information System professionals. Kettinger et al.s (1997) framework comprises six stages, each containing the following activities (See Figure 4). The first stage, envision (S1), typically involves the business process reengineering project champion engendering the support of the top management. A task force, including senior executives and individuals knowledgeable about an organisations processes, is authorised to target a business process for improvement based on a review of business strategy and IT opportunities in the hope of improving the organisations overall performance. The second stage, initiate (S2), encompasses the assignment of a reengineering project team, setting of the performance goals, project planning and shareholder/employee notification and buy-in. This is frequently achieved by developing a business case for reengineering via bench-marking, identifying external customer needs, and cost benefit analysis. The third stage, diagnose (S3), is classified as the documentation of the current process and sub processes in terms of process attributes such as activities, resources, communication, roles, IT, and cost. In identifying process requirements and assigning customers value, root causes for the problems are surfaced, and non-value-adding activities are identified. The fourth stage, redesign (S4), a new process design is developed. This is accomplished by devising process design alternatives through brainstorming and creativity techniques. The new design should meet strategic objective and fit with the human resource and IT architecture. Documentation and prototyping of the new process is typically conducted, and a design of new information system to support the new process is completed. The fifth stage, reconstruct (S5), heavily relies on change management techniques to ensure smooth migration to new process responsibilities and human resources roles. During this stage, the IT platform and systems are implemented, and the users go through the training and transition. The sixth and last stage, evaluate (S6), requires monitoring of the new process to determine if it met its goal and often involves linkage to an organisations total quality program. This methodology was empirically derived from the methodologies practiced by 25 leading reengineering consulting firms which takes the management accounting perspective by attempting to reorganise business processes while using information as an enabler then it provides a set of tools and techniques to facilitate the reengineering effort and unlike most BPR studies, in which the unit of analysis is the organisation (Kettinger et al., 1997; Pellerin and Hadaya, 2008). This justifies the use of this methodology to build on the relation of further theories but just to compare and have further opinion let look at another business process reengineering implementation methodology. A seven-step methodology, as shown in Figure 5, that shows the various steps in IT driven business process reengineering implementation (Davenport and Short, 1998; Armistead and Rowland, 1996). These steps are prioritising processes based on the comparative importance of objectives, identifying the processes to be redesigned, understanding and measuring/benchmarking the existing processes, identifying the appropriate IT tool, designing/building a process prototype, testing the reengineered process, and implementing the changed process. The first step is to define the objectives of the process redesign which can be cost reduction, time reduction, improvement in output quality and/or improvement of quality of work life. Rarely, organisations become successful in meeting multiple objectives, concurrently. In the second step, selection of the processes to be redesigned is carried out. The two approaches, namely, exhaustive and high-impact approaches are available for the selection of the processes to be redesigned. Exhaustive approach ranks all processes to be redesigned based on the order of urgency prior to the identification of the process to be redesigned whereas the high-impact approach tries to identify only the most important processes which are in conflict with business vision and process objectives. The third step tries to measure the process before redesign in order to avoid repetition and to set a baseline for future improvements. In the fourth step, it is better to have a picture of all latest IT technologi es available for redesign prior to the redesign and freezing of the redesigned process under study. The fifth step can be easily dealt with by using IT as a design tool in creating a more generic design of the process under study in arriving at a suitable organisational prototype. After generating the redesigned process prototype, implement the same in one of the units of the organisation to study the actual benefits before launching it on an organisation wide basis and the same is done in the sixth step. If the pilot launch is found successful in meeting the process objectives, launch the redesigned process throughout the organisation which is the seventh and last step in IT-based implementation of the redesigned process. If both the implementation methodologies are compared there is not just the difference in number of steps between the two methodologies, there is also the difference in the approach in cut-overs where training of users are missing in second as well the pilots and rollouts are mentioned in the later methodology. This goes with Kettinger et als (1997) findings that, while business process reengineering implementing methodologies may vary based on philosophical differences, there is enough commonality among the practiced approaches to generally describe a prototypical business process reengineering efforts. Generic Enterprise Resource Planning Implementing Methodologies In the past, companies used to decide how they wanted to do business and then made a decision about a software package that best supported their business processes. This was changed with ERP systems that required the business processes to be modified to fit the system (Davenport, 1998). Business Process Reengineering implementation exists ranging from technology enabled re-engineering to clean slate re-engineering. If ERP system is chosen first, then the re-engineering is driven by the chosen ERP system or re-engineering is technology enabled. The reason why many companies chose to conduct ERP system development was to attempt to solve all their organisational problems without reengineering business processes first. Then the Costs involved with such re-engineering are very low as alteration done on the system is least or none. In clean slate re-engineering, design starts from scratch and ERP system software is highly customised to fit the processes of the enterprise in discussion. ERP implementation significantly impacts company culture, organisational structure, business processes, in addition to procedures and rules. Furthermore, ERP applications integrate many best business practices and much knowledge that could be worthwhile if included as a part of BPR projects. By taking the best practices inherent in ERP applications, companies can change their processes simultaneously with technological change. As a result, many companies changed their business processes to fit the ERP system requirements, and the possibilities of ERP systems have been used to underpin Business Process Reengineering (Kooch, 2001, Chenn, 2001). As ERP systems have traditionally taken too long to implement, a dynamic and incremental implementation of ERP components is recommended as opposed to massive reengineering. Also pointed by Ahmed (1999) the focus of ERP implementations has shifted from matching business processes with the ERP system to developing knowledge-workers that can quickly understand and work with redesigned processes and realise the ERP-enabled benefits. Boudreau and Robey (2005), suggest a vital importance to acceptance of ERP systems. They also note that if not successfully implemented, users may work around the system and otherwise doom the project to costly duplication of effort, or worse, system failure. A phased implementation approach is highlighted in Robey et al. (2002). It is important to have a structured approach, similar to systems development, for the implementation and maintenance of ERP systems. Systems development theory uses the concept of a lifecycle and stages in the lifecycle to indicate development of information systems. The waterfall model, incremental model, RAD (rapid application development) model and spiral model are some of the systems development methods prevalent in the literature. Newer approaches to systems development address component-based development using off-the-shelf packages, agile development and the unified process for object-oriented software development (Pressman, 2005). The newer approaches have fewer stages in the development of systems. For example, the unified process which draws upon the best practices of conventional software process models has inception, elaboration, construction and transition phases. A common aspect of all these models is that they focus little attention on implementation and the post implementation of the system. The literature review undertaken revealed a lack of research with regard to some critical factors of ERP implementation (eg client consultation, schedule and plans), and this could be due to the fact that these factors are related to any information system project, not particularly to ERP project implementation. However, and generally speaking, there has not yet been a common comprehensive or integrative approach to ERP implementation. Successful ERP project implementation is a complex and difficult task. Implementing an ERP system package causes vast change that needs to be managed carefully to get the full advantages (Bingi et al, 1999; Sor, 1999). More importantly, it has been stressed by many that it is really a mistake to view ERP project implementation as merely an IT project (Davenport, 2000; Milford Stewart, 2000; OLeary, 2000). A major difference between ERP systems and traditional information systems comes from the integrated nature of ERP applications. Implementing an ERP system causes dramatic changes that need to be carefully administrated to reap the advantages of an ERP solution. Holland and Light (1999) cite that the implementation of an ERP software package involves a mix of business process change and software configuration to align the software with the business processes. In that sense, it has become clear through the literature review, and studying the experiences of leading organisations, that the implementation of an ERP system is radically different from traditional systems development. In an ERP system implementation, the key focus has shifted from a heavy emphasis on technical analysis and programming towards business process design, business-focused software configuration (Kelly et al, 1999), and legacy data clean-up (Smethurst Kawalek, 1999). In essence, there are several critical and inter-related issues that must be carefully considered to ensure successful implementation of an ERP system project. The framework (Figure 6) presented in this report is the result a major research study undertaken to propose an integrative Critical Success Factors view of ERP. ERP system implementation has been subdivided into three levels: strategic, tactical, and operational. Each level contains a number of critical factors. These levels of implementation, however, are not independent of each other, and each level should be used to derive the next level. Moreover, each level requires differing inputs; for example, there is a direct relationship between the implementation level at which a decision is being taken and the characteristics of the information required supporting decision making (Bocij et al, 2008). Communication Communication is one of most challenging and difficult tasks in any ERP implementation project (Welti, 1999). Slevin and Pinto (1987) define communication as the provision of an appropriate network and necessary data to all key factors in the project implementation. Communication has to cover the scope, objectives, and tasks of an ERP implementation project (Sumner, 1999). Failure to establish and manage the communication process with stakeholders can lead to a lack of support from stakeholders, disapproval of the deliverables and dissatisfaction. ERP implementation levels Strategic level The decisions made at this level significantly change the manner in which business is being done (Bocij et al, 2008), and these decisions are the responsibility of top management (Schultheis Sumner, 1995; Turban et al, 2000). This level can be considered as the process of establishing overall goals and of planning how to achieve those goals. Kelly et al (1999) suggested that the strategic level is the premeditated plan for transforming the organisation, enabling it to operate in the new style environment. Current legacy system evaluation: This includes the existing IT (hardware and software), business processes, organisation structure, and culture. Holland and Light (1999) argue that the nature and scale of problems that are likely to be encountered can be defined by evaluating the existing legacy system (by asking what the status of the enterprises legacy system is and how it will affect the transition to ERP and common business processes). It is clear that ERP implementation involves a complex transition from legacy information systems and business processes to an integrated IT infrastructure and common business process throughout the organisation (Gibson et al, 1999). Project vision and objective: It is very important that the organisation has a clear sense of whom and what it is before implementing an ERP project (Davenport, 2000). A global survey showed that an understanding of business objectives and clear vision are key success factors (Cooke Peterson, 1998). Slevin and Pinto (1987) define project vision as the initial clarity of goals and general direction. Welti (1999) advises on determining the project vision in the planning phase, particularly within the project scope, where the project scope includes the project definition, objectives, and strategy. He argues that all these components of the project scope are compulsory to create a clear project vision. At this stage in the ERP project, the vision should provide a direction and general objective, and no details are required. ERP implementation strategy: This will be reviewed in this level to determine the impact of ERP system implementation on the enterprise. Trepper (1999) argues that the organisations executive managers must understand how ERP system implementation will impact on the organisation to ensure a smooth transition. Holland and Light (1999) suggest that the propensity of an organisation for change should influence the choice of ERP implementation project strategy. There are two main technical options to implement an ERP system: modify the ERP system package to suit an organisations requirements or the implementation of a standard package with minimum deviation from the standard settings. Companies that do not select the second option are liable to face major difficulties (Bancroft et al, 1998; Martin, 1998; Gibson et al, 1999). Hiring consultants: Due to the complexities of implementing an ERP system, most companies choose to hire consultants to help them select, configure, and implement the system. Welti (1999) argues that the success of a project depends on the capabilities of the consultants, because they have in-depth knowledge of the software. Somers and Nelson (2001) point out those consultants may be involved in different stages of the ERP project implementation. There are hundreds of companies that provide such ERP services. Since it is a critical success factor, it has to be managed and monitored very carefully. Benchmarking: Al-Mashari and Zairi (2000) argue that benchmarking works essentially at capturing both external and internal best practices related to all aspects of ERP system implementation, and enabling the transfer of knowledge across all levels of project implementation. They argue that benchmarking can play a significant role in shaping the strategic direction to be taken for change introduction using an ERP package. Tactical level At the tactical level, also termed managerial level, the medium-term planning of ERP specific organisational issues is largely concerned, where decisions are made by middle managers (Turban et al, 2000). In order to make sure that the enterprise is meeting its targets, objectives of top management are accomplished, and it is not wasting its resources, the tactical level provides middle-level managers with the information they need to monitor the performance of the organisation, control operations, and allocate resources and set policies effectively (Schultheis Sumner, 1995; Bocij et al, 2008). Client consultation: Slevin and Pinto (1987) define client consultation as the communication and consultation with, and active listening to all affected parties, mainly the client. It is essential for an organisation to keep its clients aware of its future project to avoid misconception. They also argued that the consultation with clients should occur early in the process; otherwise the chance of subsequent client acceptance will be lowered. In general, this factor has not been thoroughly discussed in the literature reviewed. Business process change (BPC): As mentioned before, there are two main options to implement ERP syst